Strategy as a Planned Process - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2149 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Management Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? A classical definition of strategy as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"plannedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ process is as follows: the determination of the basic long-term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for those goals. (Chandler, 1962, p. 13) With reference to academic literature on the development of the field of strategy, illustrated with brief organisational examples, critically evaluate the extent to which this definition remains appropriate today. Strategy is a relatively new discipline of management, having emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, and therefore is much harder to define than other schools, with major figures each proposing their own take on strategy in business as an effective tool in successful short-term and long-term goals for an organisation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Strategy as a Planned Process" essay for you Create order The aim of this literature review is to summarise key developments in the field of strategy since its outset, and determine whether Chandlerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s quote is still relevant as a business strategist today. This article will loosely follow the structure of management laid out by Whittington (2001) in his four generic approaches model of strategy. At the turn of the 20th century, many large multidivisional businesses were emerging due to mass production and new mass markets in industrialising nations, what Chandler (1962) refers to as M-form organisations. These large organisations created a demand for a method of strategic planning that allowed an organisation to focus their aim on longer term prospects and goals for the company, attempting to assess the future possibilities for success. Chandler was one of the first influential contributors to the field of strategy, recognising that an organisation could potentially be more successful if driven by an overall set of goals to be achieved, with a long term perspective on company direction and focus (Chandler, 1962). Ansoff (1965) built upon this with his book à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Corporate Strategyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in 1965, creating a clear and coherent perspective on strategy, or what is now known as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Classicalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Plannedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ strategy. Based on the concept of forward planning with the goal of profit maximisation, strategy in this manner is calculated and rational with a strong hierarchical control from the top management of the organisational structure. (Chandler, 1962) (Ansoff I. , 1965). Segal-Horn (2004) likens this to notions of militaristic planning and leadership transferred to the workplace, with a company aiming to position themselves as unique and dominant. Much research was conducted into large corporations in the 1960s, for example General Motors, where a top-down formulaic approach to strategy was applied, where long term strategi es such as planned obsolescence, were implemented for the first time (Sloan, 1964) The Boeing Company is a good modern day example of an organisation that still utilises elements of this Classical strategy. Boeingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s current market outlook is forecasted 20 years in advance due to the predictable sales of aircraft in emerging markets (Boeing Company, 2014). Strategic forecasts are re-evaluated once a year using statistical analysis and macroeconomics to determine future strategy. This focus on planning however does not effectively address the complexity of the strategic problem, as business environments are in no way static, and Ansoff and Hayes (1976) suggested that this is why there was a shift from the classical model to a more flexible structure of strategy where the company could adapt quicker to market changes and make products that were in demand instead of producing a product at a high efficiency and assuming it would be profitable years later. Segal-Hor n (2004) suggests that the popularity of using quantitative analysis techniques and long-term planning to base company strategies upon dwindled in the 1970s where competing companies were using similar or identical analytical techniques in an attempt to gain a competitive advantage over one another, whist competition internationally was increasing. A new style of strategy emerged which had a high focus on adapting to a current market in search of performance and profitability (Segal-Horn, 2004). Whittington (2001) in his four generic approaches to strategy establishes this model as the Evolutionary model, although it had earlier been categorised by Chaffee (1985) as the Adaptive model. The evolutionary model of strategy is similar to the classical model in that they share a mutual focus on profit maximisation. However, the evolutionary model proposes that the external market is a complex assortment of fashions, competitors and stake holders who must be adapted to by the company, which contrasts to the classical approach that the market is something much more rigid and long term (Chaffee, 1985) (Shirley, 1982). It acknowledges that the environment can be extremely dynamic, and that successful strategies are formed in adaption to an ever changing field (Segal-Horn, 2004). For example, if you look at the Ford Motor Company product line in the early 20th century, one product was produced at one cost to be sold at a low price with little variety, using techniques of product orientation and mass production. Contrast Ford then to modern day Ford, and you can easily see how their strategy has changed from a very rigid method to a flexible, consumer-oriented and customisable market driven experience, with new models and trims almost every year to adapt to rapidly changing tastes and markets. Rumelt (1979) suggests that evolutionary strategy can be thought of as similar to an organism, in that there are many different organs and limbs, each with a specific role, b ut that overall there is a coordinated system (or strategy) designed to function as a whole existing within a specific environment. Competition within the evolutionary model is described as a beneficial factor as opposed to the obstacle that it is viewed as in the classical model. Research conducted by Barnett and Hansen (1996) within several Illinois banks suggests that organisations faced with increased competition were more likely to succeed and therefore become larger competition for another firm to succeed over, which supports the notion that strategy in inherently competitive, and that organisations must deliver a unique set of values to gain a competitive advantage (Porter, 1996). In terms of the quote originally written in the title of this paper, the evolutionary model of strategy does not seem to fit quite right with Chandlerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1962) original definition and view of strategy. On the one hand, the fundamental idea is almost identical, to give an organisa tion a strong unified direction and identity to advance towards success, capitalising on resources necessary to achieve this. On the other hand though is an inherent difference of methodology, where Chandler is defining a mostly internal practice of direction decision, originating from a vision of what the organisation want to produce and assuming product orientation and predictable futures, whereas evolutionary strategy looks for a niche in the current and near future market before the organisation itself. There is a third branch of strategy outlined by Whittington (2001) in his four generic approaches, Processual strategy, which has stemmed from the foundations of evolutionary strategy in that it is emergent and much more reactive to market changes than classical strategy. However, so far we have only evaluated and critiqued strategies that are targeted at profit maximisation, whereas Processual strategy is focused on a much more pluralistic set of goals. Processual strategy bases its goals on socio-economic and cultural systems in the environment, where the strategy of the organisation must align with local cultures and values as opposed to pure profit maximisation (Whittington, 2001). This applies particularly for individualistic cultures, such as Chinese, Indian and other Asian organisations that focus more on the benefit to the group and society instead of individualistic financial gain. Although much of strategy literature is based on profit maximisation, this is a very western individualistic perspective, and may not be applicable to as great a degree to a large number of organisations across the globe. Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars (1993) researched strategy and managerial styles across many countries in their book, and found that whilst 40% of executives in the USA stated that their organisation was profit focused, only 8% of executives in Japan stated the same (Hampden-Turner Trompenaars, 1993). Therefore models based on profit maximisati on, such as the classical approach outlined by Chandler (1962), fail to satisfy this need for alternative goals and are extensively limited in this aspect and may not be as relevant to organisations in these regions. The final piece of the four generic approaches is the Systemic approach to strategy (Whittington, 2001). This model is similar to Processual in that it is focused on pluralistic values instead of profit maximisation; however it follows deliberate, long-term strategies and presumptions on market situation similar to Classical strategy. Organisations such as charities may fall into this category, with no inherent need to rapidly adapt to markets whist developing a long term brand image and presence within the market to benefit pluralistic values within society. There is a very strong similarity between this approach and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Cultural Schoolà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ approach suggested by Mintzburg and Lampel (1999), to the point where they are almost identical. There is much debate within the realm of strategy as to which, if any, of these strategies or others is capable of fulfilling the needs of the organisations that they aim to aid. The quote at the beginning of this article from Chandler is iconic of the much more traditional Classical approach to strategy, and as markets globally have become more volatile and international, strategy as a field has had to develop quite extensively from this original definition. Chaffee (1985) defends this original statement as still relevant in todayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s environment, affirming that although there are many differing views on strategy, the key concepts established by Chandler and Ansoff still remain at the heart of all strategic approaches, but admitting that beyond this point all agreement breaks down. Chaffee also creates a fantastic perspective on the overall view of strategy, imagining it as a canyon, where the four approaches, an artist, geologist, meteorologist and biologist all s ee different systems that create a whole (Chaffee, 1985). These differing fields of strategy can offer options which individually would not be possible. Although Chandlerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s quote may seem slightly outdated in a rapidly changing modern market, the core concept of setting goals for future benefit still exist in all fields of strategy, whether profit orientated or pluralistic. In a real setting, it may be the case that the most effective strategy is to combine pieces of each to fit the organisation and the environment around it. No one approach will work seamlessly for an organisation, as they all clearly have strengths and weaknesses against each other. Perhaps trying to position ones organisation somewhere in the centre of Whittingtonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s model (Whittington, 2001), a middle ground between profit maximisation and pluralism, and using both analytics short and long term, may be a good basic framework from which to specialise individual organisational s trategy. To conclude on whether the definition is appropriate today, it has become obvious that there is no single definition of strategy that stands over the others, with Chaffee (1985) stating that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"virtually everyone writing on strategy agrees that no consensus on its definition existsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 89). However, if you needed to select a definition for strategy today, Chandlerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s quotation can still definitely apply to a modern organisational strategy just as well as any other. Works Cited Ansoff, I. (1965). Corporate Strategy: an analytic approach to business policy for growth and expansion. New York: McGraw-Hill. Ansoff, I., Hayes, R. (1976). From strategic planning to strategic management. New York: Wiley. Barnett, W., Hansen, M. (1996). The Red Queen in Organisational Evolution. Strategic Management Journal, 139-157. Boeing Company. (2014, April 9). Boeing Current Market Outlook 2013-2032. Retrieved from Boeing Company Website: https://www.boeing.com/boeing/commercial/cmo/ Chaffee, E. (1985). Three Models of Strategy. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 89-98. Chandler, A. D. (1962). Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Hampden-Turner, C., Trompenaars, A. (1993). The seven cultures of capitalism: Value systems for creating wealth in the United States, Japan, Germany, France, Britain, Sweden, and the Netherlands. New York: Currency/Doubleday. Hofer, C. (1973). Some preliminary research on patterns of strategic behaviour. Academy of Management Proceedings, (pp. 46-59). Keeley, M. (1980). Organizational analogy: a comparison of organismic and social contract models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 337-362. Lorange, P. . (1976). How to design a stragic planning system. Harvard Business Review, 75-81. Mintzburg, H. (1987). Crafting Strategy. Harvard Business Review, 66-75. Mintzburg, H., Lampel, J. (1999). Reflecting on the Strategy Process. Sloan Management Review, 21-30. Pettigrew, A. (1977). Strategy formulation as a political process. International Studies of Management and Organisation, 78-87. Porter, M. (1996). What is Strategy? Harvard Business Review. Porter, M. (2001). Strategy and the internet. Harvard Business Review. Rumelt, R. (1979). Evaluation of strategy: theory and models. In C. H. D Schendel, Strategic Management: A new view of business policy and planning (pp. 196-212). Boston: Little, Brown. Segal -Horn, S. (2004). The modern roots of strategic management. European Business Journal, 133-142. Shirley, R. (1982). Limiting the scope of strategy: A decision based approach. Academy of Management Review, 262-268. Sloan, A. (1964). My Years with General Motors. New York: Doubleday. Van Cauwenbergh, A., Cool, K. (1982). Strategic Management in a new framework. Strategic Management Journal, 245-265. Whittington, R. (2001). What is Strategy and does it matter? London: Thomson Learning.

Leadership Challenge Selecting Team Members Free Essays

When we think leader, we think of the person in charge, the person who is making all the decisions within an organization. We believe that a leader should be charismatic, smart and able to influences others to do what they want and be successful at their role. Nahavandi (2006) defines a leader as a person who influences individuals and groups within an organization, helps them in establishing goals and guides them towards achievement of those goals, which allows them to be effective. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership Challenge: Selecting Team Members or any similar topic only for you Order Now In order to be a good leader you will need to be effective in your role. Effective leaders are proven when their supporters achieve their goals, can work together as a team and can adjust to the many changes within the company and the changing demands from exterior forces. Is there a difference between a manager and a leader? Most people would say that a good manager can be a good leader. The functions of a manager are similar to that of a leader; the functions of a manager are to bring order and regularity to the company by planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing directing and controlling. Throughout this report we will show the differences between leading and managing. Should the company move towards a team based, empowered organization and why. We will provide ways in which to deal with resistance to the new changes within the company. Leading vs. Managing Leading and managing is said to be different in the way they organize people. A manager’s role is to capitalize on the output of the company through managerial operation by organization, planning, staffing, directing and controlling. These functions allow the manager to focus on the resources in addition to people while leading focuses on influencing people. Both are needed in order for a company to be successful and effective. They are often considered to be the same thing, the main distinction between leading and managing is that we manage things and lead people. Pascale (1990) states that a managers do things right, while leaders do the right thing. You will need to lead the managers into the need of a team-based environment which will allow them to manage the lowest level employee to achieve their goals. The effectiveness of teamwork in a transfer to a team-based organization, consistency improvement practices by showing them learning by leading as an example, mentoring and guided delegation are important to improve the social effectiveness of the team as a whole. Team-based, empowered organization Moving to a team based environment in order to increase customer satisfaction can be considered to be a good thing for the company on a whole. Allowing the lower level employees the ability to make decisions that are within the best interest of the customer and that will benefit the company. They will get a sense of pride in their work because they are more involved in the development and decision making process of the company. There are many companies today who operate under a team-based environment, like 3M, General Electric and Deere Co. They are known for their good management practice. While other companies were moving toward a more technology environment Deere realized to having a world class company was in the organizing its people. Deere brought their product and manufacturing engineering team together to create the yellow backhoe loader-digger. By doing so Deere the teams shift from tentative synchronized engineering to organized united engineering. Both teams were involved from the design phase to the production phase. In 1988 for the first time Deere had everyone from all the department involve in the production of their new machine, tool design, welding, product and manufacturing engineering, purchasing, the shop floor, and the accounting department. Moving your company to a team-based environment will benefit everyone involve from the lowest level employee to the managers and executive. How to cite Leadership Challenge: Selecting Team Members, Essay examples

Private and State Run Jails

Question: Discuss about thePrivate and State Run Jails. Answer: Introduction In this essay an understanding has been made under which the differentiation has been done between the private and the state- run jails. In it the pros and cons of both the type of jails would be dealt with and at the end some recommendations with conclusion would be made by making out which type of prison would be better to exist in New Zealand. Private Prison has been regarded as the jails which work for the profit trades where the convicted criminals would be confined (Parliament of New Zealand, 2016). These jails were contracted by the government in order to improve the tension that was positioned on the centralized prison systems. The sum of the private jails was constantly rising in the state of United States, at such a rate that was starting to raise some eyebrows (Quinn, 2016). There have been various advantages and disadvantages in relation to the private jails. The largest reason for putting the private jails into place was significantly the inferior operating costs that they could run the jail under. These types of jails have the capability to purchase vital necessities in bulk and find the best costs, unlike the government ran institutions that were under severe agreements. They were also able to employ more workers in order to decrease any extra cost that may be attained (Owen, Paez, and Murphy, 2016). Since these jails function in a free market economy, the competition that was present among these jails incite them to grant between qualities of concern. Often this kind of quality was given at a lower cost than the jails which were ran by the government. Since a personal prison was not linked with the government, decision could be made much faster. This makes dynamic policies which can be flexibly changed, deals with the major issues, and it makes the funding of allocation easier. But at the same time these types of jails have been given accountability of taking care, providing care, and for safeguarding the lives of the human beings. While the individuals in such jails were criminals then also they deserve ethical treatment. When money would be brought in this circumstance then the prisoners would be turned into proceeds. Cost cutting was an inevitable part of such type of businesses, which would want some, scarifies to be made by the prisoners in order to secure extra dollars. These jails make cash for the detainees that they maintain, which means that they do not want to lose them. Good conduct and other early release agendas were often deserted in these types of jails. With the increasing load in the states prison system, the government would be depending more and more on private jails in order to take on the extra mass of the extra prisoners. If these kinds of jails earn the mass of the prisoners in the state, then they would successfully manage the system of the jails. In the 1990s the National government released prison administration up to personal corporations. The Auckland Central Remand Prison, at Mt Eden, was constricted out to Australasian Correctional Management (ACM) in 1999. That same year a Labour-led government was elected which opposed private jails (Chammah, 2016). Jails have been at the sharp end of the power of the state. Today, the systems of corrections have been regarded as the site for a rehabilitated fight over privatization. The mechanism for such change has been the Corrections Amendment Bill, which would soon be coming before Parliament. It aimed at organizing up the corrections rules and it also included a section eliminating the personal agreements in order to administer such jails. Presently the Auckland Central Remand Prison (ARCP) has been New Zealand's only personal jail. It was constructed with public funds and then had its organization contracted out by the preceding National Government. With all the right-wing parties which were supporting privatization, the rule needed the support of people to be passed. The state's forceful authority was at its most tremendous point in jails. Guards had very severe management over the lives of the convicts. With 'reasonable' authority, but with comparatively modest explanation, they had the power to examine sacrifices and they generally disgraced other individuals. The only other similar assembly in society was the police but most of the individuals wouldn't permit securities to run the constabulary, even if they were cheaper or well-organized. Concluding publicly-run jails to populate a privately-run prison was pure folly which was firstly stated by the state of New Zealand (Appleby, 2016). The Corrections representative Mahesh Bindra stated that, The appraisal which was proclaimed would have been made in order to undermine a previously forced worker and was being used to validate the construction of an pointless privately-run corrections facility in South Auckland, There was no proof to propose that the jails even require a new facility as they have enough beds across all of New Zealands corrections facilities for the present prison people even when permitting for emergencies. Serco was also known for doubtful monetary dealings in UK and has not proven that they provide secure environments for workers and prisoners. The Mt Eden facility has the highest quantity of prisoners on workers assaults in New Zealand. The operator of the private prison i.e. Serco has been prearranged to pay $8 million to Corrections over the troubles at Mt Eden Prison. The department took over the organization of the Auckland remand facility few months ago after assertions of attack and prepared fight clubs was established. Corrections Minister Judith Collins also affirmed that the multi-million dollar sum would cover the sum of the department in stepping in and of act penalties. The sum coordinated what the government had honored Serco in performance bonuses since 2011. Serco had also been previously been served with 55 notices for the contravention of agreement since it took over the organization of the prison in 2011, paying $1.4m in fines. The branch would continue to direct Mt Eden, with Serco have given those human resources at cost, until the last part of the personal operator's agreement. Mt Eden affirmed to public control in July 2005. Upon their re-election in 2008, National refreshed the personal jails policy. In January 2011 the British corporation Serco Pacific was contracted to run the Mt Eden Corrections Facility for six years. In 2012 it was proclaimed that a new personal prison would be built at Wiri, South Auckland, to open in 2015. Followers of personal jails saw them as carrying out skill and improvements into New Zealand from abroad. Challenger of privatization, together with the Corrections Association (the prison officers union), affirms that jails were a core public service that should not be sold off to the highest bidder (Wakeup NZ.Net, 2015). Privately run federal jails suffer from safety and security issues far more than their publicly run counterparts, as per thereportreleased by the Department of Justice's Office of the Inspector General. These "contract jails" were first developed as a solution to alleviate overcrowding in public Bureau of Jails (BOP) facilities - they typically hold adult male inmates who are undocumented immigrants and are nearing the end of their sentences. As of December 2015, contract jails held around 22,660 federal inmates, or roughly 12% of the BOP's total prison population. The report compared data from 14 contract jails to 14 BOP jails to measure incidents per capita in eight groupings: illegal imports, information of events, lockdowns, prisoners regulation, telephone checking, selected complaints, urinalysis drug testing, and sexual misbehavior. In all but two categories - drug tests and sexual misconduct - contract jails had a higher number of incidents per capita. Agreement jails also seized eight times as many illegal imported cell phones as in BOP jails, and had advanced rates of physical attack, both by individuals on other people and prisoner on staff. In 2015, New Zealand observed an unfrequented growth in the private jails. Development came with the opening up of 960- bed Kohuora or Auckland South Corrections Facility (ASCF). The Government affirms that privatizing jails have various benefits (Stutchbury, 2011). Maintainance for privatization centers on three elements: novelty, rivalry, and cost-saving. The personal jail was a urgent matter because it leaves profit-driven corporations, rather than chosen governments, in charge of some of the nations most immobilized residents (Potiki, 2015). The individuals of New Zealand need to out a query for the profit-driven reason of confidentially run jails. At the same time, the people should be cautious and should not become restricted by a fascination on personally run jails which contest around who does it better. This was done mainly because both government and personal jails fall diminutive when it comes to value service condition (News Hub, 2016). If the state wants to hold Nelson Mandelas dream then they have to be in part as he states that he imagine people away from twofold opinions and diehard media captions. In order to employ with dependable proof and to put an impact a caring and logical conversation must be made. To think ahead of the proceeds and privatization, state should stick to a dream that puts individuals in first position and built a enhanced civilization for all (Scoop Independent News, 2016). Personal jails, although were regarded as a vital sin, so it needs to be more strictly observed and synchronized in the same manner that state jails were (Palethorpe, 2015). The moral and honorable harms in these for earning organizations were getting out of hand so something needs to be prepared (Radio New Zealand, 2016). Therefore, it has been concluded that the government jails were better than the private jails in New Zealand. References: Appleby, L. (2016).NZ '20 years behind' as US announces end of private jails. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.tvnz.co.nz/one-news/new-zealand/nz-20-years-behind-us-announces-end-private-jails Chammah, M. (2016). What You Need to Know About the Private Prison Phase-Out. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.themarshallproject.org/2016/08/18/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-private-prison-phase-out#.aN53mrdgu News Hub. (2016). 'No place' for private jails in NZ Labour. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.newshub.co.nz/politics/no-place-for-private-jails-in-nz---labour-2016081310 Owen, S., Paez, P., and Murphy, M. (2016). Benefits of Private Jails. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/13/opinion/benefits-of-private-jails.html?_r=0 Palethorpe, J. (2015). Protesting private jails. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://publicaddress.net/speaker/protesting-private-jails/ Parliament of New Zaeland. (2016). Private Jails. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.parliament.nz/resource/0000119827 Potiki, T.(2015). Private jails a controversial experiment. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/opinion/70390545/Private-jails-a-controversial-experiment Quinn, S. (2016). Private Jails A New Zealand Prison Officer's Perspective. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/proceedings/23/quinn.pdf Radio New Zealand. (2016). Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: Serco to pay $8m to Corrections. https://www.radionz.co.nz/news/national/300603/serco-to-pay-$8m-to-corrections Scoop Independent News. (2016). Gutting of prison jobs a gift to private prison provider. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/PO1504/S00079/gutting-of-prison-jobs-a-gift-to-private-prison-provider.htm Stutchbury, M. (2011). Private jails are best. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/opinion/private-jails-are-best/story-e6frgd0x-1226059946691 Wakeup NZ.Net. (2015).New Zealands private jails: Profiting from incarceration. Retrieved on 28th September 2016 from: https://www.wakeupnz.net/new-zealands-private-prison-profiting-incarceration/

An Alternate China Essays - Chinese Communists, Marxist Theorists

An Alternate China History 315 AN ALTERNATE CHINA The obituaries that marked Deng Xiaoping's death on February 19, 1999 were extremely outspoken in their praise of the economic reforms he had unleashed on China. However, while getting rich has been glorious for many Chinese, a much larger number, although enjoying some of the reform's benefits live a less capital existence. We must start back a few years for a proper analysis. On June 4, 1989, there was a massacre that took place in Tinanmen Square in Beijing. It was a military suppression of students and others of a democracy movement. This happened under the Deng regime. Many foreign observers were in agreement that dire economic consequences would most likely result from this political folly. It was seen as though the Communist Party's hard-liners had triumphed and consequently any market reforms would end. Measures already implemented to control inflation combined with the brutal killings were probably going to send China into a deep and prolonged recession. Something strange happened though. Market reforms, far from being abandoned, were instead deepened. From 1991 to 1994, China's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased even more rapidly than it had in the frantic 1980s when China led the world in annual average growth. This continuing economic boom brought familiar social consequences. While average living standards continued to rise gradually through the mid-1990s, the rewards of economic progress were distributed in an increasingly unequal fashion. The gap between rich and poor, growing since the decade prior, became more and more visible in the 1990s. There are no official figures on the number of newly rich. Some estimates have said that there may be as many as 10 million millionaires or so in China. This number is so substantial when you think about how the People's Republic is the world's most rapidly growing market for luxury goods. The significance of these numbers may be interpreted in various ways, but it is strikingly clear that China's socialist market economy has quickly produced a bourgeoisie class. This category of people happens to have a powerful stake in the existing Communist order. Also visible and way more numerous are the 50 to 150 million peasants from economically depressed rural areas who have migrated to the cities in search of work. Living in shantytowns or simply on the streets, the fortunate ones work as low-paid laborers on round-the-clock construction sites. As most of us have observed on TV, young peasant women labor in sweatshops under oppressive conditions. Some are employed as servants, nannies, and housecleaners in the homes of urban professionals. The migrant workers are somewhat of a functional underclass in that they do the work that permanent residents of the city avoid. Just like their counterparts in other capitalist countries, such as ours, they serve to make life comfortable for the well off. One can easily say that the rapid development of the cities is partly due to the unlimited supply of cheap labor provided by rural immigrants. The distance between urban China's rich and its poor laborers is as wide a social gap as is likely to be found in any other capitalist country. It really doesn't matter if they are compared to developed or developing nations. During Mao Zedong's years as the leader of China, life in China was plain, to say the least. Most of the population walked around wearing the same blue jacket that Mao did. This was their way of conforming. Now, at the close of the Deng era, there are terrible extremes of wealth and poverty visible. The rapid social change is as remarkable as the rapid transformation of the economy. It is true, of course, that there were dramatic improvements in the living standards of the Chinese people during the reign of Deng Xiaoping. No matter how unequally distributed the gains and whatever the social costs, virtually all sectors of society and all regions of the country enjoy significantly greater incomes and higher standards of living than they did at the onset of the reform period. However, also true, the great majority of the laboring population are victims of more intensive forms of economic exploitation than was the case in the pre-Deng era. The working people in both city and countryside

How to Diagnose Fluid Volume Deficit Signs and Care Plan

How to Diagnose Fluid Volume Deficit Signs and Care Plan SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Looking for information about fluid volume deficit? We’ve got you covered! In this article, we’ll explain the fluid volume deficit nursing diagnosis (AKA deficient fluid volume) and describe the causes, symptoms, and signs. We’ll also provide guidance on creating a fluid volume deficit care plan. What Is Fluid Volume Deficit? Fluid volume deficit (also known as deficient fluid volume or hypovolemia) describes the loss of extracellular fluid from the body. Extracellular fluid is the body fluid not contained within individual cells. It constitutes about 20% of our body weight and includes blood plasma, lymph, spinal cord fluid, and the fluid between cells. Importantly, this fluid isn’t just water- it also contains electrolytes and other essential solutes. Fluid volume deficit is often used interchangeably with the term â€Å"dehydration,† but they aren’t exactly the same thing. Dehydration refers specifically to the loss of body water as opposed to body fluid. What’s the difference? Electrolytes. If a patient has just lost water but no electrolytes, they’ll have slightly different issues- and require slightly different treatment- than a patient who has lost wholesale body fluids, which contains water and electrolytes. Well, some of these things are electrolytes. What Causes Fluid Volume Deficit? There are a number ways the body can lose fluid. Here are some major causes of deficient fluid volume: Blood loss from cuts/wounds Through the gastrointestinal system: vomiting and diarrhea Abnormally excessive urination (polyuria); can be caused by excessive intake of diuretic substances or medications or from renal disorder. Excessive sweating; typically sweating is more likely to cause dehydration than fluid volume deficit because the body generally expels far more water than electrolytes, but sweating can also cause deficient fluid volume in some cases. Bleeding disorders Burns (because the skin no longer protects against excessive fluid loss) The fluids in the body also constantly need to be replenished. Patients can experience deficient fluid volume if they aren’t taking in enough fluid. This is particularly an issue with infant and elderly patients. Patients can also experience fluid volume deficit if they are losing body fluids to a place inside the body where the fluid is not easily accessed by other organs and body systems; e.g. from edema or internal bleeding caused by trauma or as a complication of surgery. This is known as third spacing. Types of Fluid Volume Deficit While fluid volume deficit refers to the loss of both water and solutes from the body, there are three major types of fluid volume deficit: Isotonic: Caused by losing fluids and solutes about equally; solute concentration in the remaining extracellular fluid then remains relatively unchanged Hypertonic: Caused by losing more fluids than solutes, leading to increased solute concentration in the remaining fluid. Hypotonic: Caused by losing more solutes than fluid leading to decreased solute concentration in remaining fluid. This is the rarest type. The type of fluid volume deficit (as determined through lab work) may inform care, especially what fluids are offered to the patient to replace the lost fluid/solutes. She doesn't look very happy to be getting IV therapy. Signs and Symptoms of Fluid Volume Deficit There are a variety of fluid volume deficit signs and symptoms to check for. First we’ll discuss what major symptoms the patient may experience, and then address some ways to determine it the fluid volume deficit nursing diagnosis applies. Major Fluid Volume Deficit Signs Dizziness (orthostatic/postural hypotension) Decreased urination (oliguria) Dry mouth, dry skin Thirst and/or nausea Weight loss (except in third spacing, where the fluid will still be in the body but inaccessible) Muscle weakness and lethargy If fluid volume deficit is severe (more than 20% of body fluid volume is lost), the patient may go into hypovolemic shock. The more fluids that are lost, the more severe the symptoms will become. The following shock symptoms may manifest: Very pale skin Cool, clammy extremities (from the body trying to conserve blood flow to essential systems) Confusion and anxiety Rapid, weak pulse Fast, shallow breathing Unusual sweating Loss of consciousness Coma Get this tired dog some fluids, stat! How to Diagnose Fluid Volume Deficit There are a variety of indicators you can use to diagnose deficient fluid volume. (Well before the patient reaches coma stage!) Vital Signs Increased heart rate: with less fluid available to the circulatory system, the heart pumps faster to bring oxygen to the body. However, the pulse will also feel weaker than usual. Decreased blood pressure: in adults, lower fluid volume means lower pressure in the veins. However, note that children may still maintain high blood pressure when experiencing fluid volume deficit. You may also want to take the patient’s orthostatic vital signs (vital signs in both supine/lying down and standing positions). A decrease in the systolic blood pressure of 20 mmHg or more or in the diastolic blood pressure of 10mmHg or more when standing indicates fluid deficit. So does an increase in the heart rate of 20 bpm or more. Other Fluid Volume Deficit Signs and Symptoms Decreased skin turgor/tenting. If you pinch the patient’s skin on the back of the hand or forearm and it and â€Å"tents† for a moment before returning to normal instead of immediately snapping back into position, this is a sign of decreased fluid volume. However, because elderly individuals already have low skin elasticity, this is not a reliable test of fluid volume deficit for those patients. If you examine the tongue, you’ll most likely see several small furrows instead of the usual one main furrow. With severe fluid volume deficit, you will see signs of decreased tissue perfusion: the nail will take more than three seconds to return to normal coloration when pressed in a capillary refill nail test. Patient’s eyes may appear sunken. Skin may be pale. Neck veins will appear flat when the patient is laying back in a supine position. Lab Results BUN (blood urea nitrogen) to serum creatinine ratio in the blood will likely be abnormally elevated–20:1 or more. Urine specific gravity and osmolality will be elevated, indicating more highly concentrated urine. Urine may also appear a deep amber color, and there will be decreased urine output. Hematocrit (the percentage of red blood cells in blood plasma) increases (unless fluid was lost due to hemorrhage, in which case you would likely see a drop in hematocrit post-hemorrhage) Depending on the cause of the deficient fluid volume, you may also see: Hypokalemia (decreased potassium in the bloodstream) is commonly caused by vomiting, diarrhea, excessive sweating, or renal (kidney) disorder. Hyponatremia (decreased sodium in blood) OR hypernatremia (increased sodium in the blood) could be present depending on the types of fluid lost. An increase in vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone may also occur as the body constricts the blood vessels and retains remaining body fluid to maintain blood pressure. The other kind of lab! Potential Complications of Fluid Volume Deficit When left untreated, severe fluid volume deficit can lead to: Renal failure Heart failure General organ failure (from lack of oxygen) Death Even if patient’s life is saved through fluid infusion, if they reach the point of organ failure they may experience irreversible damage to some body systems. Fluid Volume Deficit Care Plan A nursing care plan is a written document that tracks what you have done and will do to take care of a particular patient’s individual needs. Nursing students generally need to create fairly detailed care plans fully from scratch at part of their training in order to learn nursing best practices and to practice the analytical skills critical for good nursing. However, if you are a working nurse, your place of work probably has a computer system that partially generates a care plan based on the input of the relevant nursing diagnoses. We'll go through the four parts of a nursing care plan (the diagnosis, goals for patient recovery, nursing orders or interventions, and evaluation) tailored to fluid volume deficit. We also have links to useful examples of completed fluid volume deficit care plans. Diagnosis First, you'll identify the relevant nursing diagnosis or diagnoses. Unlike medical diagnoses, which typically identify the specific medical condition at issue (i.e. diabetes, bronchitis, celiac disease), nursing diagnoses describe the more immediate and ongoing physical and psychological needs of the patient. According to the standards set by NANDA International, a nursing diagnosis is typically written in a three-part manner: first the diagnosis, then what the diagnosis is related to (its direct cause), and finally the evidence for that diagnosis. You can reference the common direct causes and diagnostic signs and symptoms of fluid volume deficit as noted above for help creating your diagnostic statement. An example fluid volume deficit nursing diagnosis statement might look something like this: â€Å"Fluid volume deficit related to diarrhea and vomiting secondary to gastroenteritis as evidenced by decreased skin turgor, low blood pressure, and decreased urine output.† â€Å"Risk for fluid volume deficit† or â€Å"risk for deficient fluid volume† is a slightly different nursing diagnosis that can be used to describe patients who, while not yet exhibiting serious signs of fluid volume deficit, are at particular risk of developing the issue. A risk nursing diagnosis only has two parts: the diagnosis (â€Å"risk for fluid volume deficit†) is related to whatever the cause of the potential future issue is (â€Å"diarrhea and vomiting†). So the risk diagnosis would be â€Å"risk for fluid volume deficit related to diarrhea and vomiting.† The patient may also have other nursing diagnoses in addition to fluid volume deficit. These should be included in the care plan. Any other diagnoses you made would be specific to the patient and based on a head-to-toe assessment (coming soon). I diagnose this owl with incredible cuteness. Goals The overall goal of a nursing care plan for a stable patient with deficient fluid volume is to safely restore fluids and necessary electrolytes to the body, but you’ll want to be more specific than that. Good goals for your care plan should be specific to the patient and measurable (so you can definitively assess whether the goal has been met). Depending on the patient, here are some example goals that might be appropriate for treating fluid volume deficit. Patient is no longer deficient in fluid volume as evidenced by: Urine output of at least 30 mL/hour (720 mL/day) Systolic blood pressure restored to patient baseline (or 90 mmHg) Patient heart rate of 60-100 bpm (or patient baseline) Improved skin turgor Normal BUN and hematocrit lab values Orders/Interventions While the particular interventions you choose in your care plan should be tailored to the patient and the severity of their condition, here are some potentially appropriate nursing interventions for fluid volume deficit. Note that some of these deficient fluid volume interventions are not highly specific because they would need to be tailored to the individual patient. If you do use these interventions in a care plan, be sure to select appropriate benchmarks for the patient and add more information. Administer intravenous fluid therapy as prescribed; monitor fluid replacement levels closely to ensure patient does not experience fluid overload Administer blood transfusion products as prescribed Offer electrolyte-rich oral fluids (like a sports drink) if tolerated/appropriate; assist patient in drinking if necessary Assess patient mental state for signs of confusion/agitation Provide oral hygiene to patient at least two times a day (so patient can respond to the sensation of thirst) Maintain record of patient intake and output of fluids Weigh patient daily in the same clothes on the same scale Monitor lab values: hematocrit (assess every 30 mins to 4 hours as appropriate); BUN to creatinine; others as appropriate Monitor skin turgor and moisture of mucous membranes Monitor vital signs (blood pressure and heart rate), including orthostatic vital signs Assess amount, color, and osmolality of urine Provide necessary education about maintaining appropriate hydration to patient Patient can name fluid volume deficit symptoms that indicate a need to seek medical care Evaluation In your fluid volume deficit care plan, you’ll use this section to track what interventions and orders were successfully implemented, assess patient progress towards the goals, and evaluate whether each of the fluid volume deficit interventions (and interventions for any other diagnoses you made) described in the plan should be ceased, continued, or revised. Well, this dog seems pretty happy with how everything is going. Example Fluid Volume Deficit Care Plans There are several sources of example care fluid volume deficit care plans. Here are some you may find useful: Prenhall Nursing Care Plan- Deficient Fluid Volume This example nursing plan is free supplemental material from a Prentice Hall nursing textbook. It offers a detailed case study with a nursing care plan for fluid volume deficit tailored to the particular patient. Nursing Concept Blogspot- Deficient Fluid Volume This care plan is quite detailed and offers explanations and rationale for lots of different potential nursing interventions for fluid volume deficit. Additionally, it segments out which interventions might be appropriate for different patient populations. Nurses Labs Deficient Fluid Volume Care Plan This is a very detailed care plan with detailed suggestions for nursing assessment and nursing interventions, along with rationales. It could be a helpful resource for students who need to write rationales for their care plans. Nurses Labs- Hypovolemic Shock Care Plan This care plan is specifically for addressing hypovolemic shock caused by fluid volume deficit, with specific interventions. RN Speak Hypovolemia Nursing Management This isn’t a complete care plan, but it does offer lots of specific assessment and interventions that could be incorporated into a fluid volume deficit nursing care plan. RN Central Fluid Volume Deficit Care Plan This care plan is laid out similarly to the computer care plans generated in hospitals, where the nurse simply selects the relevant components of the diagnosis, outcome, and interventions. It’s not very detailed but it gives a good idea of how quick care plans are generated in the field. Delmar Learning Fluid Volume Concept Map This isn’t laid out like a traditional care plan. However, nursing students may find it helpful as it lays out how all of the different parts of the fluid volume deficit care plan are conceptually related to each other. Plans are very important! Key Takeaways: Fluid Volume Deficit â€Å"Fluid volume deficit† (which is the same as â€Å"deficient fluid volume† or hypovolemia) is a nursing diagnosis that describes a loss of extracellular fluid from the body. Gastrointestinal issues, blood loss (internal or external), inadequate fluid intake, and renal disorder are all things that can place a patient at risk for fluid volume deficit. There are a variety of signs and symptoms of fluid volume deficit you can look for, including dizziness, dry mouth and skin, thirst and/or nausea, low blood pressure, and an increased heart rate. If the fluid loss is very serious, the patient will go into hypovolemic shock and you might see the following severe fluid volume deficit symptoms: Pallor, confusion, cool/clammy extremities, fainting, and even coma. Deficient fluid volume can be diagnosed through a combination of observation and assessment of patient body systems, vital signs, and lab work. Finally, we also discussed how to make a fluid volume deficit care plan and listed potential goals, outcomes, and nursing intervention. The main deficient fluid volume interventions are to monitor the patient’s fluid levels and safely restore the lost fluid. What's Next? Looking for a blood pressure chart? We've got you covered. If you're looking for ICD-10 codes, we have the codes for abdominal pain and diabetes. Got a patient with shingles? We have pictures of the infamous rash, common shingles treatments, and some methods of transmission to avoid. Need help converting fluid measurements? Find out how many cups four quarts is here.

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